A Bioarchaeological Analysis of Non-adult Health in Henan Province, Central China from the Middle Neolithic Period to the Late Bronze Age(ca. 5000-221 BCE)

Abstract

This bioarchaeological analysis of non-adults (under 16 years old) excavated from Henan Province, China, aims to explore the effects of profound socio-economic and environmental transitions from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age for population health. Henan Province in central China is located within the fertile middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River Plain. From 5000 to 221 BCE, the region transformed from small agricultural settlements to densely populated, socially stratified politic or urban centres. This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of the skeletal remains of children over this timespan. A total of 395 individuals (240 non-adults under 16 years old, 154 adults, and one age unknown individual) from eight archaeological sites in Henan Province, along with two comparative sites in Shaanxi Province (northwest China) and Guangdong Province (southern China), were analysed.

Analysis included: skeletal growth (epiphyseal fusion timing and bone measurements), stress indicators (vertebral dimension analysis, long bone mid-shaft cortical thickness, and enamel hypoplasia), metabolic diseases (scurvy, rickets, cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, and cranial lesions), and respiratory diseases (maxillary sinusitis, rib periosteal lesions, and tuberculosis). Growth profiles were further contextualised through comparisons with modern clinical and archaeological data from other regions, contributing to a database specific to archaeological populations in China. As a supplement to understanding the social perspective on children in pre-Qin China, this study also examines the burial treatments of non-adult individuals.

The results demonstrated some differences in the timing of epiphyseal union and long bone growth with commonly used standards of age estimation derived from Western populations. These results highlight the complex interplay of living conditions, diet, and genetics, on skeletal development and the need to establish population specific methods for Chinese populations. A high mortality rate among non-adults, particularly those aged 0–5 years was observed across the time periods. Metabolic diseases, especially scurvy, were prevalent across all periods, reflecting the challenging living conditions, poor nutrition, and a monotonous diet dominated by dryland agriculture. Skeletal indicators of stress show a declining trend from the Middle Neolithic Period to the Late Bronze Age. This suggests an improvement in food security and enhanced community care for children, which likely contributed to a reduction in early-life stress. In contrast, respiratory diseases increased over time, potentially driven by environmental and social factors such as a colder and drier climate, the introduction of livestock and increased human-animal contact, and progressive urbanisation. In addition, burial practices for non-adults across pre-Qin central China generally followed two basic patterns: urn burials for infants and single earth-cut pit graves for older children. The marginal placement of many non-adult burials and the use of unrefined burial containers during the late Bronze Age may suggest that those who died young were not considered significant members of society.

Future research would benefit from the integration of detailed biomolecular analysis, including stable isotope analysis for diet, stress and mobility, and amelogenin peptide analysis to establish the sex of the children.