Inequality and Structural Violence in Archaic Athens: A Bioarchaeological Investigation of the Burial Ground at Phaleron (8th-5th century BCE)

Abstract

This thesis aims to investigate the impact of inequality and structural violence on the lower socio-economic status inhabitants of Athens during the Archaic period (8th-5th century BCE). This period was characterised by social and political changes that set the foundation for greater political equality and democracy.
The Phaleron burial ground, excavated during the 2010s, significantly changed the known burial record for the Archaic period. The site differs from contemporaneous cemeteries due the diversity of burial practice, including simple pit burials and mass graves.
This study aims to identify health disparities between certain subgroups of the burial ground based on funerary practice. Multiple markers of physiological stress (cribra orbitalia, dental enamel hypoplasia, dental disease, periosteal new bone formation, trauma, and vertebral joint disease) were analysed and compared between those of different burial status. These pathological lesions were recorded through macroscopic examination of 206 individuals (normative burials: N=132, non-normative single burials: N=39, mass burials: N=35).
Despite some limitations due to preservation and size of the sample, a strong demographic bias towards young adult males in the mass burials was identified. A significantly higher level of physiological stress and trauma was identified in the normative burials, indicating high levels of physical activity and exposure to hazardous environments. The evidence was consistent with types of manual labour historically recorded for enslaved and other low-status people. When integrated with the historical evidence it is concluded that Phaleron was used for the burial of low-status labourers, potentially including enslaved individuals, as well as higher-status men in mass burials who might have been executed as political prisoners. In Athens, improved political equality did not translate into general economic or health equality, and large sections of society continued to be marginalised based on socio-economic status, gender, or citizenship.