Tianxia: the Weight of History on Chinese Diplomatic Discourse, 1992-2022

Abstract

This study explores the positioning and influence of the historical philosophy and institution represented by Tianxia in contemporary Chinese diplomatic discourse. Since Zhao Tingyang's 2005 publication The Tianxia System, academic discussions on China's concept of Tianxia have continued to develop, yet the concept has rarely appeared in China's official statements, and contemporary scholars offer flexible definitions of Tianxia. To link the Tianxia with China's historical practices and current authoritative discourse, this study seeks to achieve three research objectives: First, to clarify the specific content of Tianxia as a concept and as a historical institution, considering not only modern scholarly definitions but also historical practices that directed East Asian regional order; second, to understand China's official stance on the Tianxia concept and its corresponding discourse; third, to examine the application of China's diplomatic discourse, particularly in relations with foreign counterparts from different cultural backgrounds, while revealing differences between various diplomatic actors and their relation to historical practices.
This study employs critical discourse analysis, examining the historical conceptual and institutional contexts of diplomatic actors and their foreign counterparts, as well as the immediate diplomatic scenarios. It focuses on China-Japanese, China-Vietnamese, and China-French diplomatic relations—cases where the historical and cultural backgrounds show both differences and connections—while also considering the discourse differences among various diplomatic actors such as China's top leadership, the diplomatic system, media, and other actors.
The study defines two terms: a Tianxia Concept and a Tianixa Institution. Its findings suggest that the Tianxia Concept and the Tianxia Institution in historical practices are two related but distinct modes of thinking. The former advocates for an outward-looking world concept of all-inclusive, mutual benefits, while the latter emphasizes stability and ritualistic, inward-looking, regional relations that accommodate nationalism. The historical inertia of both the Tianxia Concept and Institution continues to influence contemporary Chinese discourse and decision-making. While the Tianxia Concept highly resembles the values China expects to express, the practice of the Tianxia Institution constitutes a critical part in contemporary practice.
Regarding the agency of Chinese decision-makers, this study questions the view that Chinese diplomatic discourse has undergone significant nationalist changes since Xi Jinping’s presidency, arguing that current changes largely align with historical inertia. On diplomatic targets, this study examines how China's diplomatic discourse with countries influenced by Confucian traditions tends to reveal stronger Tianxia inclination, even though these discourses may not always resonate with their foreign counterparts. The study also highlights the growing discourse differences between the state agencies of foreign affairs and media, emphasizing the sociocultural backgrounds behind these variations.
this study aims to provide insights for the study of Chinese IR values through an analysis of Tianxia discourse in diplomatic practice. It further explores the historical expansion and decline of the Tianxia Concept and Institution in East Asia, encouraging the application of Tianxia theory to Pan-East Asian studies, as well as to the study of intercultural communication and conflict in the modernisation process.