A study of the impact of the infusion method of critical thinking on Chinese students’ critical thinking and academic attainment

Abstract

Critical thinking (CT) has been recognised as a core skill in the latest English curriculum standards for secondary schools in China. However, there is a widespread concern, particularly among Western academics, that Chinese students are not trained to develop a critical mindset. Despite this stereotypical assumption, there is little empirical evidence to decide whether this is actually the case. Misinterpreting Chinese students’ difficulty in demonstrating CT as a lack of CT could result in a waste of resources. Therefore, this study first examines this common assumption through a systematic review of studies comparing the CT skills, dispositions, and styles of Chinese students with those of other nationalities.

A search of seven social science databases supplemented by other sources found 15 studies that met pre-specified inclusion criteria. Eight of these focused on students’ CT skills, but their results were mixed. There is no good evidence to support the claim that Chinese students have higher or lower CT skills than students of other nationalities. Six studies on CT dispositions suggest that Chinese students were less disposed to CT, which is not the same as being weak in CT. Only one study was about CT style, indicating that Chinese students preferred information-seeking over engaging in CT. Therefore, the idea that Chinese students have weaker CT should be set aside. Additionally, almost all studies included in the review were small-scale, using weak designs. These findings suggest that the CT of Chinese students is under-studied and that more robust, larger-scale experimental studies are needed.

Most current research on CT education in China has been conducted within the higher education sector, with only a few studies suggesting that the infusion of CT shows promise in fostering CT among Chinese secondary students. However, these studies often involved small sample sizes, limiting the generalisability of their findings. Additionally, most adopted a one-group, post-test-only design. To provide more robust evidence of the efficacy of the infusion method of CT in Chinese secondary schools, a two-group randomised controlled trial with process evaluation was conducted. EnglishFusion is an intervention that infuses CT into the regular English curriculum, where CT is explicitly taught within the context of the existing curriculum. It was specifically developed for Chinese secondary school students.

Twenty-one English language teachers with 2,011 Grade 8 students from four village secondary schools in China were recruited. The randomisation occurred at the teacher level. Eleven teachers with their students (n = 1,004) were randomised to deliver the intervention once a week for three months, while the other ten teachers with their students (n = 1,007) were assigned to a business-as-usual control group. The impact of EnglishFusion was measured by differences in modified standardised CT skill tests. A process evaluation, including class observations and interviews, was also conducted to determine fidelity to the treatment and understand the mechanisms of impact evaluation findings.

The results of the trial indicate a small positive impact of infusion teaching on students’ CT skills. This suggests that infusing CT into the English curriculum is a promising approach to fostering CT among Chinese secondary students. The study also demonstrates that it is feasible to train teachers to deliver EnglishFusion and that it can be incorporated into the regular curriculum without adverse effects. However, there is no evidence that improvements in CT skills translate to enhanced academic attainment outcomes. The discrepancy between improvements in CT skills and academic achievement could suggest several possibilities. One explanation is that the effects on academic attainment may require more time to manifest. Another possibility is that the cognitive load imposed on students as they simultaneously develop CT skills and learn subject content might hinder immediate academic gains. Alternatively, this discrepancy may indicate that traditional academic metrics do not fully capture or reward the cognitive growth fostered by CT.

The findings from the trial indicate that EnglishFusion appears particularly beneficial for certain groups of students. It benefits younger students more than older ones, suggesting that younger students are better positioned to gain the full benefits of CT instruction. Additionally, students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds demonstrate greater growth in both CT skills and academic achievement. Teachers’ critical awareness also increased after being exposed to the training and teaching of EnglishFusion.

These findings have implications for teaching practice, educational policies, and future research. Although CT has been emphasised in the reformed curriculum, there has been no formal training for teachers on the practical aspects of delivering CT. This study demonstrates that teachers can be trained to deliver CT lessons effectively. Teacher training should emphasise student-centred pedagogies that focus on questioning skills rather than merely disseminating information.

Additionally, if developing creative and innovative thinkers is a priority in the government’s ambition to become an economic and technological superpower, educational policymakers may wish to consider introducing CT at an early age, helping to build a foundation for more complex cognitive skills in later years. The school curriculum also needs to be overhauled to better balance CT and subject content. If fostering CT in schools is to be prioritised, assessment methods need to be revised to include open-ended questions that require innovative thinking, higher-order reasoning, and problem-solving skills. In China, if CT is not part of the formal examination system, it is unlikely to be taught or prioritised in schools. Given that the intervention can potentially address educational disadvantages, expanding such initiatives to underprivileged areas in China could also help bridge educational gaps, ensuring that all students, regardless of socioeconomic background, have the opportunity to develop these essential skills.

Future research could explore the long-term impact of infusing CT and investigate how best to integrate CT into different stages of the educational process.